How Ukrainians Perceive Emotions and Colours: An Analysis of Specific Features

doi: 10.56294/sctconf2024.1224

ORIGINAL

How Ukrainians Perceive Emotions and Colours: An Analysis of Specific Features

Cómo perciben los ucranianos las emociones y los colores: un análisis de sus particularidades

Katerina Milutina¹ *, Oleksandra Balashevych² *, Illia Zarubin³ *

¹Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Faculty of Psychology, Department of Developmental Psychology, Kyiv, Ukraine.

²Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Department of Psychodiagnostics and Clinical Psychology, Kyiv, Ukraine.

³Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Kyiv, Ukraine.

Cite as: Milutina K, Balashevych O, Zarubin I. How Ukrainians Perceive Emotions and Colours: An Analysis of Specific Features. Salud, Ciencia y Tecnología - Serie de Conferencias. 2024; 3:.1224. https://doi.org/10.56294/sctconf2024.1224

Submitted: 12-03-2024 Revised: 20-07-2024 Accepted: 11-10-2024 Published: 12-10-2024

Editor: Dr. William Castillo-González

Corresponding Author: Katerina Milutina *

ABSTRACT

The study presents research results on the associative connection between emotions and colours among Ukrainian-speaking and non-Ukrainian-speaking Ukrainians. It aims to confirm or refute the constancy of associations between the ten differential emotions identified by C. Izard and different colours, as well as the specificity of the relationship of these associations for the Ukrainian-speaking audience compared to the non-Ukrainian-speaking one. The survey questionnaire comprised a socio-demographic section, which incorporated a query regarding the language that the respondents learned to speak initially. The methodology was based on the free association method, where the stimulus material consisted of the names of ten specified emotions, and the respondents were expected to provide the colours that came to mind first. The study involved 127 participants aged between 18 and 60, of whom 109 were female and 18 were male. The study showed a constant associative relationship ratio between emotions and colours. In contrast, this ratio’s specificity in the Ukrainian sample was not supported compared to the non-Ukrainian sample. This finding highlights the need for further research into the influence of language, culture, and individuality on colour perception in modern conditions. The second result shows that some emotions have more associative colours than others, indicating the existence of emotion colour attributes. It allows for the analysis of the uniqueness of each individual’s experience of different emotions.

Keywords: Emotions; Colour Psychology; Language; Perception; Associations.

RESUMEN

El estudio presenta los resultados de una investigación sobre la conexión asociativa entre las emociones y los colores entre los ucranianos de habla ucraniana y los que no lo son. Su objetivo es confirmar o refutar la constancia de las asociaciones entre las diez emociones diferenciales identificadas por C. Izard y los diferentes colores, así como la especificidad de la relación de estas asociaciones para la audiencia de habla ucraniana en comparación con la de habla no ucraniana. El cuestionario de la encuesta comprendía una sección sociodemográfica, que incorporaba una pregunta sobre el idioma que los encuestados aprendieron a hablar inicialmente. La metodología se basó en el método de asociación libre, donde el material de estímulo consistía en los nombres de diez emociones específicas, y se esperaba que los encuestados proporcionaran los colores que les vinieran primero a la mente. El estudio involucró a 127 participantes de entre 18 y 60 años, de los cuales 109 eran mujeres y 18 hombres. El estudio mostró una relación asociativa constante entre las emociones y los colores. Por el contrario, la especificidad de esta relación en la muestra ucraniana no se mantuvo en comparación con la muestra no ucraniana. Este hallazgo pone de relieve la necesidad de seguir investigando la influencia del lenguaje, la cultura y la individualidad en la percepción del color en las condiciones modernas. El segundo resultado muestra que algunas emociones tienen colores más asociativos que otras, lo que indica la existencia de atributos de color de la emoción.

Palabras clave: Emociones; Psicología del Color; Lenguaje; Percepción; Asociaciones.

INTRODUCTION

The understanding of emotions in psychology has evolved significantly, with critical conceptualisation and methodology shifts. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, influential figures such as Charles Darwin, Sigmund Freud, and William James emphasised biological and physiological aspects of emotions. During the mid-20th century, the behaviourist movement focused on observable behaviour, leading to a decreased emphasis on emotions that were not visible to the human eye.⁽¹⁾

However, in the latter half of the century, the cognitive revolution integrated emotions with cognitive processes such as appraisal, judgement, and perception of reality.⁽²⁾

The study of emotions has extended beyond psychology, leading to interdisciplinary research such as the history of emotions, which considers them historical and cultural artefacts.⁽²⁾

As a result, the understanding of emotions in psychology has progressed from focusing on biological and physiological aspects to a more comprehensive perspective that encompasses cognitive, social, and cultural dimensions. Research on colour perception involves interdisciplinary efforts to understand how people encode, perceive, talk about, and use colour.⁽³⁾

It includes attempts to understand associations between emotions, colours, and language and colours. This research has the potential to identify specific associations and deepen our understanding of the experience of emotions, their influence on a person’s worldview, and the role of language in this structure.

This study aims to confirm or refute the consistency of associations between the ten differential emotions identified by C. Izard and different colours and the specificity of the correlation between these associations for the Ukrainian-speaking audience compared to the foreign-speaking audience.

To analyse scientific research on colour perception in different cultures. To identify the peculiarities of associations between colours and emotions in Ukrainians.

There are three main approaches to studying emotions: the appraisal tradition, psychological constructionism, and the tradition of basic emotions⁽⁵⁾ The appraisal tradition in understanding emotions is based on the idea that they result from cognitive evaluations of events or stimuli in terms of their significance for personal well-being and goals. The subjective interpretation of the event, rather than the event itself, determines the emotional reaction, as different people may feel different emotions in response to the same event. The evaluation process is dynamic and can change over time as new information becomes available or the person’s goals or environment change.

It is believed that evaluation processes affect various components of emotions, including physiological reactions, expressive behaviour, and subjective feelings. The appraisal tradition has influenced the understanding of the complexity of emotional experiences and provided a basis for investigating how people interpret and react to the surrounding world.⁽⁶⁾

According to the psychological constructionism tradition, emotions are not innate or biologically determined states but are constructed from more basic psychological components. The core effect refers to the neurophysiological state that is consciously experienced as a simple feeling of whether a person feels good or bad. The conceptual act model proposes that emotions are constructed in real-time based on this effect and the categorisation of the affective state using concepts from one’s cultural environment. Additionally, executive functions such as working memory, control, and selection of more rational actions (inhibitory control) and cognitive flexibility play a role in this process. Social and cultural contexts influence emotions, but personal experience and conceptual knowledge can also contribute to variability. Psychological constructionism highlights the interplay between bodily changes and cognitive processes in experiencing emotions, rejecting the notion of specific neural circuits for particular emotions.⁽⁷⁾ Accordingly, this tradition studies emotions as dynamic processes formed by numerous interacting psychological components rather than discrete entities.

The theory of basic emotions posits that universal emotions exist, are innate and inherent to all individuals, irrespective of their culture, and can be identified by universal facial expressions. This theory has significantly impacted the development of emotion theory and research, providing a basis for comprehending the biological and evolutionary aspects of emotional life.⁽⁸⁾

Carroll Izard contributed to the tradition of basic emotions with his differential emotions theory (DET). He proposed ten fundamental emotions, each with its own set of facial expressions, subjective experiences, and biological processes. Interest is the feeling of being intrigued and stimulated by something new or complex. Joy is an emotion of pleasure, feelings of delight and fulfilment. Surprise is a brief emotional state triggered by an unexpected event. Sadness is a feeling of loss or adversity, often accompanied by a desire to withdraw. Anger is an emotional response to perceived injustice or threat, often leading to a readiness to act. Disgust involves reacting to unpleasant or offensive stimuli, including physical, moral, or interpersonal elements. Contempt is a feeling of disdain or mockery towards something considered inferior or unworthy. Fear is the response to a perceived danger or threat, leading to a ‘fight or flight’ response. Fear, shame, and guilt are complex emotions that different situations can trigger. Shame involves feelings of exposure, embarrassment, and a desire to hide or disappear. Guilt is felt when someone believes they have violated a moral norm or harmed another person.⁽⁹⁾

Research into colour perception has a complex and lengthy history. The study of colour perception in psychology has been ongoing for several centuries, with significant contributions from disciplines such as philosophy, physiology, and psychophysics. Currently, colour perception in psychology is examined from multiple perspectives.⁽³⁾ The study investigates the stability of associations between different colours and specific emotions. For instance, data suggests that the perception of colour temperature, warm and cool shades, can mediate associations between colour and emotions. Warm colours are often associated with high-energy emotions, while cool colours are associated with low-energy emotions. Cultural traditions and personal experiences also influence secondary associations. For example, white is often associated with purity and blue with sadness.⁽¹⁰⁾ High-energy emotions like happiness and anger are commonly associated with primary colours like blue, red, and yellow.

In contrast, low-energy emotions like sadness and fear are linked to neutral colours like black, white, and grey.⁽¹¹⁾ Cultural differences can significantly impact the associations between colour and emotions. Certain colours have strong associations with specific emotions in certain cultures. For example, in Thai culture, red represents anger.⁽¹²⁾

Also, the context in which colour is presented, such as in facial expressions, can influence the perceived emotion.⁽¹²⁾ A complex interplay of physiological reactions, cultural norms, personal experience, and contextual presentation of colour influences the stability of associations between colour and emotions. Therefore, it is essential to consider these factors when examining the relationship between colour and emotions.

The interaction between language and cognition in colour perception is also studied. Research has shown that language can influence grapheme-colour synesthesia. Specifically, linguistic properties such as phonetic similarity, colour names, and semantic associations can influence the specific associations between letters and colours.⁽¹³⁾Similarly, research has shown that language affects categorical colour perception. It is easier to distinguish colours from different linguistic categories than those from the same category, suggesting a connection between language and visual perception.⁽¹⁴⁾ Proficiency in linguistic colour categories is closely linked to non-linguistic colour categories, which can improve colour recognition and influence perceptual judgments.⁽¹⁵⁾

Furthermore, using colour-related vocabulary can enhance the categorical nature of colour perception, leading to improved accuracy in colour discrimination. It indicates that language can expand colour concepts, thereby influencing the accuracy of colour discrimination.⁽¹⁶⁾ Thus, language may not cause significant and lasting changes in colour perception. However, it does interact with cognitive processes, affecting colour processing, particularly in post-perceptual decision-making and immediate object differentiation tasks.

The Luscher Colour Test, developed in the 1940s, is an example of colour used in psychology. This test assesses personality and psychological state based on an individual’s colour preferences, which are subjective but stable indicators of psychological functioning. However, the Luscher test has not gained widespread use in modern psychological practice for several reasons. Critics have argued that the theoretical foundations of the test lack empirical evidence, and many psychologists question its validity and reliability. Besides, the test has been criticised for oversimplifying complex psychological traits and states, reducing them to a simple choice of colour without considering the multifaceted nature of human psychology.

Additionally, it is essential to note that colour associations can vary significantly across different cultures, which may limit the applicability and generalizability of the Luscher Colour Test. As a result of these limitations, the test is not considered a primary tool for psychological assessment and is more commonly used in non-clinical or informal settings.⁽¹⁷⁾ Therefore, using colours in psychology, particularly for understanding their relationship with emotions, should be based on diverse empirical data considering their perception’s complexity. Contemporary research is mainly applied in nature, studying colour perception in the online space,⁽¹⁸⁾ product selection,⁽¹⁹⁾ and facial recognition.⁽²⁰⁾

METHOD

The data was collected in a single stage using the ‘snowball’ method and the Google Forms platform. The survey was presented in Ukrainian and consisted of two blocks. The first block was a socio-demographic questionnaire that included questions about the respondent’s age, gender, and first language. The second block employed the free association method, and respondents were given the following instructions: Next, you will be given ten open questions in which you will be asked to indicate which colours are associated with specific emotions. Please answer the questions objectively without including any subjective evaluations. There are no right or wrong answers. The stimulus material was created based on the theory of differential emotions.⁽⁴⁾

Respondents had to be at least 18 years old to be included in the sample, and the criterion was met. Each participant was allowed to review the informed consent form before agreeing to participate in the study. The form clearly stated that the research also involves the study of linguistic features, and participants who feel uncomfortable answering questions about their ‘first’ language may choose not to participate. The Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology approved the study under protocol No. 01-24/23.

RESULTS

Demographic data and characteristics of the respondents (total N=127) were analyzed. Table 1 provides an overview of socio-demographic statistics.

Table 1. Overview of socio-demographic data
		N	%
Gender	Female	109	85,8
Gender	Male	18	14,2
Age	18-20 years old	12	9,4
	21-25 years old	31	24,4
	26-40 years old	39	30,7
	40-60 years old	45	35,4
Native language	Russian	81	63,8
Native language	Ukrainian	46	36,2
Notes: N - number of respondents, %.

We conducted a frequency analysis of respondents’ answers to open questions about colour associations with emotions to answer the first research question. Specifically, we analysed the emotions of interest, joy, surprise, anger, sorrow, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt. To standardise the obtained responses and reduce the number of categories studied, we grouped some specific colours into more general ones. For example, we classified khaki shades as green, reddish as red, and light pink as pink. Incorrect answers were excluded from the analysis. The analysis included only those colours that received more than 10 % of respondents’ answers for each emotion.

The results showed that for the emotion of interest, the predominant colours were yellow (27,6 %), green (21,3 %), purple (11,8 %), and blue (11 %), as demonstrated in figure 1.